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1Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Cheonan, Korea
2Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Korea
3The Korean Institute of Nutrition, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Korea
© 2023, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
This study was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (grant No. NRF-2021R1I1A 3049883).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Kim K. Formal analysis: Lee S. Funding acquisition: Kim K, Park S. Methodology: Kim K, Park S. Project administration: Kim K, Park S. Visualization: Lee S. Writing –original draft: Lee S, Kim K. Writing – review & editing: Lee S, Kim K, Park S.
Components1 | Total | Adults | Older adults | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole grains | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 2,496 (61.8) | 1,991 (58.6) | 506 (78.6) | ||
Insufficient | 1,543 (38.2) | 1,404 (41.4) | 138 (21.4) | ||
Meat, fish, eggs, beans | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 497 (12.3) | 334 (9.8) | 164 (25.5) | ||
Insufficient | 3,542 (87.7) | 3,062 (90.2) | 480 (74.5) | ||
Total vegetables | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 1,436 (35.6) | 1,040 (30.6) | 396 (61.6) | ||
Insufficient | 2,603 (64.4) | 2,355 (69.4) | 247 (38.4) | ||
Vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 1,842 (45.6) | 1,359 (40.0) | 483 (75.0) | ||
Insufficient | 2,197 (54.4) | 2,037 (60.0) | 161 (25.0) | ||
Fresh fruits | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 949 (23.5) | 642 (18.9) | 307 (47.7) | ||
Insufficient | 3,090 (76.5) | 2,753 (81.1) | 337 (52.3) | ||
Milk and dairy products | 0.253 | ||||
Sufficient | 716 (17.7) | 612 (18.0) | 104 (14.5) | ||
Insufficient | 3,323 (82.3) | 2,783 (82.0) | 540 (83.9) |
Components1 |
Total |
Adults |
Older adults |
||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | ||||||||||||||
Total | 61.4±10.0 | 62.0±13.0 | 59.6±12.0 | 62.7±10.1 | 61.6±10.2 | 62.1± 13.1 | 59.9±12.1 | 62.8±10.2 | 60.5±9.2 | 61.3±12.3 | 57.9±11.3 | 62.3±9.4 | |||||||||||||
Whole grains | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 62.1±9.8 | 63.4±12.9 | 60.0±11.6 | 63.0±9.8 | 62.4±10.0 | 63.8±13.0 | 60.4±11.8 | 63.1±9.9 | 61.0±9.0 | 61.9±12.1 | 58.7±10.9 | 62.4±9.5 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.2±10.3 | 59.6±12.9 | 58.8±12.6 | 62.3±10.4 | 60.4±10.3 | 59.7±12.9 | 59.2±12.6 | 62.3±10.6 | 58.6±10.0 | 58.7±12.8 | 55.0±12.6 | 62.0±9.0 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.035 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.005 | 0.024 | 0.006 | 0.006 | 0.001 | 0.662 | |||||||||||||
Meat, fish, eggs, beans | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 64.9±8.2 | 66.9±10.0 | 62.8±10.7 | 64.9±8.7 | 65.2±8.6 | 67.2±10.4 | 63.6±10.7 | 64.8±9.2 | 64.2±7.3 | 66.2±9.1 | 61.3±10.4 | 65.0±7.6 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.9±10.2 | 61.3±13.2 | 59.1±12.1 | 62.4±10.2 | 61.2±10.3 | 61.6±13.3 | 59.5±12.2 | 62.6±10.3 | 59.3±9.5 | 59.6±12.8 | 56.8±11.4 | 61.4±9.8 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Total vegetables | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 64.0±8.8 | 65.2±12.6 | 61.3±10.7 | 65.5±9.4 | 64.8±8.9 | 66.1±13.0 | 62.1±10.7 | 66.3±9.4 | 62.0±8.0 | 63.0±11.1 | 59.4±10.3 | 63.4±9.1 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.0±10.4 | 60.2±12.9 | 58.6±12.6 | 61.2±10.1 | 60.2±10.4 | 60.4±12.8 | 58.9±12.6 | 61.3±10.1 | 58.2±10.5 | 58.5±13.6 | 55.5±12.5 | 60.5±9.6 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 63.4±8.9 | 64.4±12.5 | 61.0±10.8 | 64.7±9.4 | 64.0±9.0 | 65.1±12.8 | 61.7±10.8 | 65.2±9.5 | 61.6±8.1 | 62.7±11.4 | 59.1±10.5 | 63.2±8.9 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 59.8±10.7 | 59.9±13.1 | 58.3±12.8 | 61.1±10.3 | 60.0±10.6 | 60.2±13.0 | 58.7±12.7 | 61.2±10.3 | 57.0±11.3 | 57.0±13.8 | 54.4±13.1 | 59.8±10.5 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Fresh fruits | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 66.9±9.3 | 78.8±11.1 | 68.7±9.5 | 62.6±10.6 | 67.8±9.6 | 79.9±11.5 | 69.7±9.7 | 62.9±10.7 | 64.9±8.3 | 76.4±10.1 | 66.4±8.6 | 62.0±10.3 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 61.5±9.9 | 68.5±15.5 | 59.9±13.2 | 58.6±12.3 | 61.6±10.0 | 69.0±15.4 | 60.4±13.2 | 59.2±12.3 | 59.9±9.7 | 64.5±15.4 | 56.5±13.3 | 54.3±11.0 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Milk and dairy products | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 65.4±7.9 | 67.2±10.3 | 61.5±10.6 | 67.4±9.2 | 63.2±9.1 | 64.7±11.2 | 60.2±11.0 | 64.7±10.5 | 63.1±7.3 | 65.5±9.2 | 58.1±11.1 | 65.8±7.2 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 61.0±10.2 | 61.4±13.3 | 59.5±12.2 | 62.3±10.0 | 61.2±10.4 | 61.6±13.4 | 59.8±12.3 | 62.4±10.1 | 60.0±9.5 | 60.4±12.7 | 57.9±11.4 | 61.6±9.6 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.346 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.847 | <0.001 |
Characteristics | Total | Adults | Older adults | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | 4,039 (100) | 3,395 (84.1) | 644 (15.9) | 0.271 | |
Men | 1,943 (48.1) | 1,646 (48.5) | 297 (46.1) | ||
Women | 2,096 (51.9) | 1,749 (51.5) | 347 (53.9) | ||
Age, mean±SD (yr) | 46.6±16.1 | 42.2±13.3 | 70.4±5.1 | <0.001 | |
Education level | <0.001 | ||||
≤Middle school | 404 (10.0) | 95 (2.8) | 309 (48.0) | ||
High school | 1,173 (29.0) | 892 (26.3) | 281 (43.6) | ||
≥College | 2,462 (61.0) | 2,408 (70.9) | 54 (8.4) | ||
Household type | <0.001 | ||||
Single | 724 (17.9) | 505 (14.9) | 219 (34.1) | ||
One-generation | 967 (23.9) | 632 (18.6) | 335 (52.1) | ||
Two-generation or more | 2,263 (56.0) | 2,176 (64.1) | 87 (13.5) | ||
Other | 85 (2.1) | 83 (2.4) | 2 (0.3) | ||
Household income (million KRW) | <0.001 | ||||
≤2.0 | 389 (9.6) | 109 (3.2) | 280 (43.5) | ||
2.0 to 3.5 | 931 (23.0) | 708 (20.8) | 223 (34.6) | ||
3.5 to 5.0 | 1,047 (25.9) | 981 (28.9) | 66 (10.2) | ||
>5.0 | 1,673 (41.4) | 1,598 (47.1) | 75 (11.6) | ||
Food security | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient food quantity & variety | 3,208 (79.7) | 2,792 (82.5) | 416 (64.8) | ||
Sufficient food quantity & insufficient variety | 642 (16.0) | 463 (13.7) | 179 (27.9) | ||
Insufficient food quantity & variety | 175 (4.3) | 128 (3.8) | 47 (7.3) |
Components |
Total | Adults | Older adults | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole grains | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 2,496 (61.8) | 1,991 (58.6) | 506 (78.6) | ||
Insufficient | 1,543 (38.2) | 1,404 (41.4) | 138 (21.4) | ||
Meat, fish, eggs, beans | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 497 (12.3) | 334 (9.8) | 164 (25.5) | ||
Insufficient | 3,542 (87.7) | 3,062 (90.2) | 480 (74.5) | ||
Total vegetables | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 1,436 (35.6) | 1,040 (30.6) | 396 (61.6) | ||
Insufficient | 2,603 (64.4) | 2,355 (69.4) | 247 (38.4) | ||
Vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 1,842 (45.6) | 1,359 (40.0) | 483 (75.0) | ||
Insufficient | 2,197 (54.4) | 2,037 (60.0) | 161 (25.0) | ||
Fresh fruits | <0.001 | ||||
Sufficient | 949 (23.5) | 642 (18.9) | 307 (47.7) | ||
Insufficient | 3,090 (76.5) | 2,753 (81.1) | 337 (52.3) | ||
Milk and dairy products | 0.253 | ||||
Sufficient | 716 (17.7) | 612 (18.0) | 104 (14.5) | ||
Insufficient | 3,323 (82.3) | 2,783 (82.0) | 540 (83.9) |
Food literacy questions | Total | Adults | Older adults | p-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total average score of food literacy | 61.4±10.0 | 61.6±10.2 | 60.5±9.2 | 0.007 | |
Nutrition and safety food literacy score | 62.0±13.0 | 62.1±13.1 | 61.3±12.3 | 0.105 | |
Q1. I know about the various food groups that make up nutritionally balanced meals | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 0.922 | |
Q2. I try to eat a variety of food groups such as cereals, fish, vegetables, fruits, and dairy | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 0.065 | |
Q3. I make a list of items I need to buy before grocery shopping | 3.3±0.9 | 3.3±0.8 | 3.2±0.9 | 0.002 | |
Q4. I can understand the food labeling in packages of processed foods | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.2±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q5. When purchasing processed food, I check food information (ingredients, nutrition facts) | 3.2±0.9 | 3.3±0.9 | 3.1±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q6. I check the country of origin when purchasing food | 3.4±0.9 | 3.4±0.9 | 3.3±0.8 | 0.012 | |
Q7. I know how to separate and store ingredients that I cannot consume immediately | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.7 | 0.507 | |
Q8. I can follow a simple recipe | 3.5±0.9 | 3.5±0.9 | 3.5±0.9 | 0.816 | |
Q9. I can prepare a meal without difficulty | 3.4±1.0 | 3.4±1.0 | 3.7±1.0 | <0.001 | |
Q10. I wash my hands thoroughly before cooking | 4.2±0.7 | 4.2±0.7 | 4.2±0.8 | 0.421 | |
Q11. I know how to store food in the refrigerator and understand impacts of room-temperature storage on freshness and safety | 3.4±0.9 | 3.4±0.9 | 3.5±0.8 | 0.010 | |
Q12. I check the cleanliness of restaurants when eating out | 3.5±0.9 | 3.5±0.9 | 3.6±0.8 | 0.026 | |
Q13. I can understand information related to food safety issues in the medi | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.2±0.7 | <0.001 | |
Q14. I can critically evaluate food advertisement content, especially health claims | 3.4±0.7 | 3.4±0.7 | 3.4±0.7 | 0.004 | |
Cultural and relational food literacy score | 59.6±12.0 | 59.9±12.1 | 57.9±11.3 | <0.001 | |
Q15. Cooking is enjoyable | 3.2±0.8 | 3.2±0.8 | 3.0±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q16. When eating, I fully concentrate on eating | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.7 | 0.171 | |
Q17. When eating, I savor various senses such as visual beauty, aroma, taste, and texture | 3.4±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.3±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q18. I am grateful for the process that has allowed the food to arrive at the table | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.6±0.8 | 0.031 | |
Q19. I like to eat or share food with my family, friends, and neighbors | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 0.019 | |
Q20. I enjoy talking about food with people around me | 3.3±0.8 | 3.3±0.8 | 3.4±0.9 | 0.193 | |
Q21. I am interested in food from various cultures | 3.2±0.8 | 3.3±0.8 | 2.8±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q22. Enjoying traditional food can help protect our cultural identity | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.7 | 0.044 | |
Socio-ecological food literacy score | 62.7±10.1 | 62.8±10.2 | 62.3±9.4 | 0.246 | |
Q23. I know why choosing seasonal food is good for the environment | 3.7±0.8 | 3.6±0.8 | 3.8±0.9 | <0.001 | |
Q24. I think food that is directly traded with producers is more reliable | 3.5±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.6±0.8 | 0.004 | |
Q25. I think choosing organic products is important for environmental conservation | 3.7±0.8 | 3.7±0.8 | 3.8±0.8 | 0.008 | |
Q26. I think rural farmers are important for a sustainable society | 3.6±0.7 | 3.6±0.7 | 3.7±0.6 | 0.048 | |
Q27. I am interested in urban agriculture (such as city gardening, weekend farming, etc.) | 3.0±1.0 | 3.0±1.0 | 3.2±1.0 | <0.001 | |
Q28. It is important to consider animal welfare when purchasing meat and eggs | 3.4±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 3.1±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q29. I know why it is better to choose fair-trade products | 3.3±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.1±0.8 | <0.001 | |
Q30. I believe that reducing meat and promoting vegetarianism helps slow climate change | 3.7±0.7 | 3.7±0.7 | 3.7±0.7 | 0.607 | |
Q31. I try to reduce food waste | 3.4±0.8 | 3.4±0.8 | 3.5±0.8 | 0.033 | |
Q32. I try to reduce food packaging waste (take-out drinks, delivery foods, etc.) | 3.2±0.9 | 3.3±0.9 | 3.1±0.9 | <0.001 | |
Q33. I think everyone should have access to quality food regardless of economic circumstances | 3.9±0.6 | 3.9±0.6 | 3.9±0.6 | 0.101 |
Components |
Total |
Adults |
Older adults |
||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | Total | Nutrition and safety | Cultural and relational | Socioecological | ||||||||||||||
Total | 61.4±10.0 | 62.0±13.0 | 59.6±12.0 | 62.7±10.1 | 61.6±10.2 | 62.1± 13.1 | 59.9±12.1 | 62.8±10.2 | 60.5±9.2 | 61.3±12.3 | 57.9±11.3 | 62.3±9.4 | |||||||||||||
Whole grains | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 62.1±9.8 | 63.4±12.9 | 60.0±11.6 | 63.0±9.8 | 62.4±10.0 | 63.8±13.0 | 60.4±11.8 | 63.1±9.9 | 61.0±9.0 | 61.9±12.1 | 58.7±10.9 | 62.4±9.5 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.2±10.3 | 59.6±12.9 | 58.8±12.6 | 62.3±10.4 | 60.4±10.3 | 59.7±12.9 | 59.2±12.6 | 62.3±10.6 | 58.6±10.0 | 58.7±12.8 | 55.0±12.6 | 62.0±9.0 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | 0.002 | 0.035 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.005 | 0.024 | 0.006 | 0.006 | 0.001 | 0.662 | |||||||||||||
Meat, fish, eggs, beans | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 64.9±8.2 | 66.9±10.0 | 62.8±10.7 | 64.9±8.7 | 65.2±8.6 | 67.2±10.4 | 63.6±10.7 | 64.8±9.2 | 64.2±7.3 | 66.2±9.1 | 61.3±10.4 | 65.0±7.6 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.9±10.2 | 61.3±13.2 | 59.1±12.1 | 62.4±10.2 | 61.2±10.3 | 61.6±13.3 | 59.5±12.2 | 62.6±10.3 | 59.3±9.5 | 59.6±12.8 | 56.8±11.4 | 61.4±9.8 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Total vegetables | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 64.0±8.8 | 65.2±12.6 | 61.3±10.7 | 65.5±9.4 | 64.8±8.9 | 66.1±13.0 | 62.1±10.7 | 66.3±9.4 | 62.0±8.0 | 63.0±11.1 | 59.4±10.3 | 63.4±9.1 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 60.0±10.4 | 60.2±12.9 | 58.6±12.6 | 61.2±10.1 | 60.2±10.4 | 60.4±12.8 | 58.9±12.6 | 61.3±10.1 | 58.2±10.5 | 58.5±13.6 | 55.5±12.5 | 60.5±9.6 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 63.4±8.9 | 64.4±12.5 | 61.0±10.8 | 64.7±9.4 | 64.0±9.0 | 65.1±12.8 | 61.7±10.8 | 65.2±9.5 | 61.6±8.1 | 62.7±11.4 | 59.1±10.5 | 63.2±8.9 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 59.8±10.7 | 59.9±13.1 | 58.3±12.8 | 61.1±10.3 | 60.0±10.6 | 60.2±13.0 | 58.7±12.7 | 61.2±10.3 | 57.0±11.3 | 57.0±13.8 | 54.4±13.1 | 59.8±10.5 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Fresh fruits | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 66.9±9.3 | 78.8±11.1 | 68.7±9.5 | 62.6±10.6 | 67.8±9.6 | 79.9±11.5 | 69.7±9.7 | 62.9±10.7 | 64.9±8.3 | 76.4±10.1 | 66.4±8.6 | 62.0±10.3 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 61.5±9.9 | 68.5±15.5 | 59.9±13.2 | 58.6±12.3 | 61.6±10.0 | 69.0±15.4 | 60.4±13.2 | 59.2±12.3 | 59.9±9.7 | 64.5±15.4 | 56.5±13.3 | 54.3±11.0 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | |||||||||||||
Milk and dairy products | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sufficient | 65.4±7.9 | 67.2±10.3 | 61.5±10.6 | 67.4±9.2 | 63.2±9.1 | 64.7±11.2 | 60.2±11.0 | 64.7±10.5 | 63.1±7.3 | 65.5±9.2 | 58.1±11.1 | 65.8±7.2 | |||||||||||||
Insufficient | 61.0±10.2 | 61.4±13.3 | 59.5±12.2 | 62.3±10.0 | 61.2±10.4 | 61.6±13.4 | 59.8±12.3 | 62.4±10.1 | 60.0±9.5 | 60.4±12.7 | 57.9±11.4 | 61.6±9.6 | |||||||||||||
p-value | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.346 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.847 | <0.001 |
Components | Total | Adults | Older adults |
---|---|---|---|
Whole grains | |||
Total | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99) | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99) | 0.96 (0.94, 0.99) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 0.97 (0.81, 1.17) | 0.95 (0.77, 1.16) | 1.15 (0.67, 1.96) |
Quartile 3 | 0.82 (0.68, 1.00) | 0.80 (0.65, 0.98) | 0.99 (0.55, 1.77) |
Quartile 4 | 0.67 (0.55, 0.82) | 0.66 (0.53, 0.82) | 0.72 (0.36, 1.45) |
Meat, fish, eggs, beans | |||
Total | 0.97 (0.96, 0.99) | 0.98 (0.96, 0.99) | 0.96 (0.94, 0.99) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 1.00 (0.71, 1.40) | 0.97 (0.66, 1.43) | 1.15 (0.56, 2.37) |
Quartile 3 | 0.59 (0.43, 0.80) | 0.89 (0.60, 1.30) | 0.22 (0.11, 0.41) |
Quartile 4 | 0.58 (0.42, 0.81) | 0.59 (0.41, 0.85) | 0.53 (0.26, 1.10) |
Total vegetables | |||
Total | 0.96 (0.95, 0.97) | 0.96 (0.95, 0.97) | 0.97 (0.95, 0.99) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 0.63 (0.51, 0.78) | 0.66 (0.52, 0.84) | 0.43 (0.26, 0.71) |
Quartile 3 | 0.47 (0.38, 0.59) | 0.50 (0.39, 0.63) | 0.39 (0.23, 0.66) |
Quartile 4 | 0.35 (0.28, 0.43) | 0.32 (0.25, 0.41) | 0.49 (0.26, 0.93) |
Vegetables excluding kimchi and pickles | |||
Total | 0.97 (0.96, 0.98) | 0.97 (0.96, 0.98) | 0.97 (0.95, 0.99) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 0.80 (0.66, 0.98) | 0.79 (0.64, 0.98) | 0.71 (0.42, 1.19) |
Quartile 3 | 0.69 (0.57, 0.85) | 0.70 (0.56, 0.86) | 0.71 (0.40, 1.26) |
Quartile 4 | 0.50 (0.40, 0.61) | 0.47 (0.38, 0.58) | 0.57 (0.28, 1.18) |
Fresh fruits | |||
Total | 0.96 (0.95, 0.97) | 0.96 (0.95, 0.97) | 0.92 (0.89, 0.95) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 0.60 (0.45, 0.80) | 0.63 (0.44, 0.91) | 0.24 (0.13, 0.45) |
Quartile 3 | 0.38 (0.29, 0.50) | 0.31 (0.22, 0.43) | 0.21 (0.11, 0.38) |
Quartile 4 | 0.32 (0.24, 0.43) | 0.24 (0.17, 0.33) | 0.14 (0.07, 0.30) |
Milk and dairy products | |||
Total | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99) | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99) | 0.96 (0.94, 0.99) |
Quartile 1 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Quartile 2 | 0.55 (0.43, 0.72) | 0.39 (0.29, 0.52) | 0.49 (0.25, 0.97) |
Quartile 3 | 0.54 (0.42, 0.70) | 0.45 (0.34, 0.60) | 0.40 (0.20, 0.80) |
Quartile 4 | 0.58 (0.45, 0.76) | 0.39 (0.29, 0.53) | 0.51 (0.23, 1.13) |
Values are presented as number (%). SD, standard deviation; KRW, Korean won.
Values are presented as number (%). Susfficient was defined as meeting or exceeding the intake frequency criterion for each food group.
Values are presented as mean±standard deviation.
Values are presented as mean±standard deviation. Susfficient was defined as meeting or exceeding the intake frequency criterion for each food group.
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval). By logistic regression. Adjusted for gender, age, education level, household type, household income, and food security.