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1Department of Community Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2Botanic Health Clinic, Ministry of Health, Selangor, Malaysia
© 2022, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
FUNDING
None.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Both authors contributed equally to conceiving the study, analyzing the data, and writing this paper.
Country | Year of survey | Income category | Response rate (%) | Survey sample | Sample aged 13-15 yr | Monitoring tobacco use | Smoke-free policies | Cessation programs | Warnings about the dangers of tobacco | Advertising bans | Taxation | WHO MPOWER score1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brunei Darussalam2 | 2019 | HIC | 67.7 | 2,674 | 1,549 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 4 | - | 22 |
Cambodia | 2016 | lMIC | 81.0 | 3,716 | 1,866 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 20 |
Cook Islands | 2016 | uMIC | 56.6 | 614 | 334 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 24 |
Fiji | 2016 | uMIC | 80.7 | 3,697 | 1,639 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 22 |
Guam3 | 2017 | HIC | 70.7 | 2,506 | 1,129 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Kiribati | 2018 | lMIC | 71.2 | 2,622 | 1,190 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 20 |
Lao PDR | 2016 | lMIC | 98.0 | 6,550 | 3,930 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 22 |
Macau, China | 2015 | HIC | 76.6 | 1,907 | 1,182 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 20 |
Marshall Islands | 2016 | uMIC | 83.8 | 3,522 | 1,434 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 19 |
Micronesia | 2019 | lMIC | 87.1 | 6,660 | 3,398 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 19 |
Mongolia | 2019 | uMIC | 92.1 | 4,146 | 3,630 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 24 |
Niue | 2019 | uMIC | 77.3 | 163 | 68 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 23 |
Palau | 2017 | uMIC | 92.7 | 1,484 | 637 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 22 |
Papua New Guinea | 2016 | lMIC | 60.0 | 2,301 | 1,400 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 18 |
Philippines | 2015 | lMIC | 83.5 | 10,602 | 6,670 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 24 |
Samoa | 2017 | lMIC | 61.9 | 2,076 | 1,057 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 23 |
Tuvalu | 2018 | uMIC | 89.9 | 764 | 424 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 20 |
Vanuatu | 2017 | lMIC | 64.5 | 2,257 | 1,067 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 22 |
GYTS, Global Youth Tobacco Survey; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; HIC, high-income country; lMIC, lower middle-income country; uMIC, upper middle-income country; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
1 The individual maximum scores are 4 for M and 5 for P, O, W, E, and R; The total maximum MPOWER score is 29.
2 Taxation is not applicable since the sale of tobacco is banned in Brunei.
3 MPOWER data were not available for Guam.
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval).
ST, smokeless tobacco; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
1 Data on parental smoking were unavailable for 5 countries (Brunei, Lao PDR, the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Philippines); MPOWER scores were unavailable for Guam.
Variables |
Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | |||
Individual factors | ||||||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Female | 0.31 (0.18, 0.53) | <0.001 | 0.85 (0.72, 1.00) | 0.049 | 0.41 (0.36, 0.46) | <0.001 | ||
Age (yr) | ||||||||
11-13 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
14-15 | 1.34 (0.73, 2.46) | 0.350 | 1.45 (1.11, 1.90) | 0.007 | 2.05 (1.70, 2.52) | <0.001 | ||
16-18 | 2.18 (1.17, 4.06) | 0.010 | 2.04 (1.56, 2.67) | <0.001 | 3.80 (3.10, 4.67) | <0.001 | ||
Parental smoking2 | ||||||||
None/don’t know | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |||||
Either parent | 2.07 (1.27, 3.37) | <0.001 | - | - | ||||
Both parents | 6.13 (2.75, 13.65) | <0.001 | - | - | ||||
Pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco factors | ||||||||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages via mass media | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.77 (0.45, 1.33) | 0.350 | 1.27 (1.07, 1.50) | 0.006 | 1.20 (1.05, 1.36) | 0.006 | ||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages at events | ||||||||
No/did not attend | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 2.44 (1.79, 3.34) | 0.001 | 0.96 (0.82, 1.13) | 0.610 | 1.37 (1.22, 1.55) | <0.001 | ||
Taught about the dangers of tobacco use | ||||||||
No/don’t know | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.61 (0.39, 0.95) | 0.030 | 1.14 (0.97, 1.34) | 0.120 | 1.17 (1.03, 1.33) | 0.013 | ||
Exposure to tobacco imagery in TV/movies | ||||||||
No/did not watch | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.71 (0.49, 1.02) | 0.060 | 1.03 (0.87, 1.22) | 0.730 | 1.09 (0.97, 1.25) | 0.160 | ||
Exposure to tobacco advertisements | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||||||
Yes | 2.20 (1.44, 3.35) | <0.001 | 1.27 (1.08, 1.49) | 0.004 | 1.47 (1.31, 1.67) | <0.001 | ||
Offered free tobacco products | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 5.74 (3.62, 9.12) | <0.001 | 1.94 (1.60, 2.35) | <0.001 | 2.84 (2.43, 3.23) | <0.001 | ||
Country-level factors | ||||||||
Year of survey | ||||||||
2015-17 | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
2018-19 | 2.17 (1.60, 2.94) | <0.001 | - | 5.07 (3.59, 7.15) | <0.001 | |||
National income | ||||||||
Lower middle | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Upper middle | 1.07 (0.76, 1.49) | 0.710 | - | 0.27 (0.18, 0.42) | <0.001 | |||
High | 1.36 (0.99, 1.87) | 0.050 | - | 0.11 (0.07, 0.17) | <0.001 | |||
MPOWER score | 0.79 (0.69, 0.92) | <0.001 | - | 1.31 (1.24, 1.39) | <0.001 |
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval).
WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
1 Data on parental smoking were unavailable for 5 countries (Brunei, Lao PDR, the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Philippines); MPOWER scores were unavailable for Guam.
2 Parental smoking status was included in a separate multilevel model.
Country | Year of survey | Income category | Response rate (%) | Survey sample | Sample aged 13-15 yr | Monitoring tobacco use | Smoke-free policies | Cessation programs | Warnings about the dangers of tobacco | Advertising bans | Taxation | WHO MPOWER score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brunei Darussalam |
2019 | HIC | 67.7 | 2,674 | 1,549 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 4 | - | 22 |
Cambodia | 2016 | lMIC | 81.0 | 3,716 | 1,866 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 20 |
Cook Islands | 2016 | uMIC | 56.6 | 614 | 334 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 24 |
Fiji | 2016 | uMIC | 80.7 | 3,697 | 1,639 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 22 |
Guam |
2017 | HIC | 70.7 | 2,506 | 1,129 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Kiribati | 2018 | lMIC | 71.2 | 2,622 | 1,190 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 20 |
Lao PDR | 2016 | lMIC | 98.0 | 6,550 | 3,930 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 22 |
Macau, China | 2015 | HIC | 76.6 | 1,907 | 1,182 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 20 |
Marshall Islands | 2016 | uMIC | 83.8 | 3,522 | 1,434 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 19 |
Micronesia | 2019 | lMIC | 87.1 | 6,660 | 3,398 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 19 |
Mongolia | 2019 | uMIC | 92.1 | 4,146 | 3,630 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 24 |
Niue | 2019 | uMIC | 77.3 | 163 | 68 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 23 |
Palau | 2017 | uMIC | 92.7 | 1,484 | 637 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 22 |
Papua New Guinea | 2016 | lMIC | 60.0 | 2,301 | 1,400 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 18 |
Philippines | 2015 | lMIC | 83.5 | 10,602 | 6,670 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 24 |
Samoa | 2017 | lMIC | 61.9 | 2,076 | 1,057 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 23 |
Tuvalu | 2018 | uMIC | 89.9 | 764 | 424 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 20 |
Vanuatu | 2017 | lMIC | 64.5 | 2,257 | 1,067 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 22 |
Country | Ever tried or experimented with ST | ST consumption in the past 30 day | Either cigarette smoking or ST consumption in the past 30 day | Dual use (both cigarette smoking and ST consumption) in the past 30 day | Cigarette smoking in the past 30 day |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brunei Darussalam | 2.0 (1.4, 2.5) | 1.0 (0.5, 1.5) | 8.1 (5.5, 10.6) | 0.1 (0.0, 0.3) | 7.7 (5.2, 10.1) |
Cambodia | 3.0 (2.5, 3.6) | 1.1 (0.8, 1.4) | 1.9 (1.2, 2.6) | 0.0 (0.0, 0.1) | 0.9 (0.4, 1.5) |
Cook Islands | 5.5 (5.5, 5.5) | 3.8 (3.8, 3.8) | 17.1 (17.1, 17.1) | 2.8 (2.8, 2.8) | 19.1 (19.1, 19.1) |
Fiji | 4.5 (3.4, 5.7) | 2.4 (1.5, 3.3) | 12.2 (9.1, 15.3) | 0.6 (0.3, 0.9) | 12.1 (8.9, 15.3) |
Guam | 21.7 (19.4, 24.1) | 11.1 (9.3, 12.8) | 10.5 (9.0, 12.0) | 4.7 (3.5, 5.9) | 11.0 (9.4, 12.6) |
Kiribati | 51.1 (47.2, 55.0) | 42.1 (38.5, 45.7) | 30.4 (27.7, 33.2) | 17.0 (14.2, 19.8) | 24.1 (21.0, 27.2) |
Lao PDR | 5.7 (4.8, 6.6) | 3.7 (3.0, 4.4) | 10.0 (8.4, 11.7) | 0.7 (0.4, 0.9) | 7.9 (6.4, 9.5) |
Macau, China | 4.0 (3.0, 5.0) | 1.8 (1.2, 2.4) | 5.7 (3.0, 8.4) | 0.4 (0.1, 0.7) | 4.8 (2.0, 7.5) |
Marshall Islands | 37.5 (34.9, 40.1) | 26.1 (23.7, 28.5) | 19.6 (17.7, 21.4) | 13.4 (11.5, 15.3) | 22.0 (19.4, 24.7) |
Micronesia | 32.1 (30.1, 34.2) | 21.3 (19.2, 23.4) | 19.7 (18.2, 21.2) | 12.0 (10.6, 13.4) | 23.6 (21.7, 25.6) |
Mongolia | 41.6 (37.1, 46.0) | 8.1 (6.6, 9.7) | 11.0 (9.2, 12.8) | 0.8 (0.5, 1.2) | 4.7 (3.5, 5.9) |
Niue | 5.7 (1.2, 10.2) | 2.5 (-0.1, 5.1) | 11.3 (5.8, 16.9) | 1.3 (-0.4, 2.9) | 11.8 (5.6, 17.9) |
Palau | 26.5 (23.4, 29.6) | 16.0 (13.4, 18.6) | 29.0 (25.8, 32.3) | 8.7 (6.9, 10.6) | 31.8 (28.3, 35.3) |
Papua New Guinea | 27.2 (22.9, 31.5) | 15.2 (11.5, 19.0) | 24.8 (18.1, 31.6) | 6.8 (4.7, 8.8) | 24.7 (17.9, 31.5) |
Philippines | 4.9 (3.5, 6.3) | 2.5 (1.8, 3.2) | 14.2 (12.5, 15.9) | 0.8 (0.6, 1.0) | 14.7 (12.8, 16.6) |
Samoa | 5.2 (4.2, 6.3) | 2.6 (1.7, 3.5) | 13.6 (10.6, 16.6) | 0.4 (0.2, 0.7) | 12.6 (9.6, 15.6) |
Tuvalu | 5.6 (3.2, 7.9) | 3.2 (1.9, 4.4) | 17.0 (13.4, 20.5) | 0.7 (0.0, 1.4) | 15.9 (12.2, 19.5) |
Vanuatu | 9.1 (7.3, 10.8) | 5.3 (3.9, 6.6) | 21.4 (17.7, 25.1) | 2.1 (1.2, 3.0) | 21.2 (17.1, 25.4) |
Variables | Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | |||
Individual factors | ||||||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Female | 0.69 (0.55, 0.86) | 0.001 | 0.79 (0.73, 0.85) | <0.001 | 0.77 (0.71, 0.83) | <0.001 | ||
Age (yr) | ||||||||
11-13 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
14-15 | 0.93 (0.61, 1.44) | 0.754 | 1.12 (1.00, 1.26) | 0.057 | 1.11 (.99, 1.25) | 0.084 | ||
16-18 | 1.16 (0.71, 1.89) | 0.563 | 1.60 (1.41, 1.82 | <0.001 | 1.58 (1.39, 1.79) | <0.001 | ||
Cigarette smoking | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 4.89 (3.89, 6.15) | <0.001 | 5.25 (4.79, 5.76) | <0.001 | 4.75 (4.33, 5.22) | <0.001 | ||
Parental smoking | ||||||||
None/unknown | 1.00 (reference) | |||||||
Either parent | 1.71 (1.28, 2.28) | <0.001 | ||||||
Both parents | 3.58 (2.45, 5.24) | <0.001 | ||||||
Pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco factors | ||||||||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages via mass media | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.68 (0.50, 0.93) | 0.014 | 1.12 (1.03, 1.22) | 0.011 | 1.14 (1.04, 1.24) | 0.004 | ||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages at events | ||||||||
No/did not attend | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 1.46 (1.18, 1.81) | 0.001 | 1.06 (0.98, 1.16) | 0.163 | 1.06 (0.97, 1.15) | 0.205 | ||
Taught about the dangers of tobacco use | ||||||||
No/don’t know | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.63 (0.50, 0.80) | <0.001 | 1.07 (0.98, 1.16) | 0.109 | 1.07 (0.98, 1.17) | 0.111 | ||
Exposure to tobacco imagery in TV/movies | ||||||||
No/did not watch | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.69 (0.56, 0.87) | 0.001 | 1.07 (0.98, 1.17) | 0.117 | 1.09 (1.0, 1.29) | 0.052 | ||
Exposure to tobacco advertisements | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 1.37 (1.06, 1.78) | 0.017 | 1.18 (1.08, 1.28) | <0.001 | 1.18 (1.08, 1.29) | <0.001 | ||
Offered free tobacco products | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 3.33 (2.40, 4.61) | <0.001 | 2.01 (1.79, 2.24) | <0.001 | 1.95 (1.74, 2.18) | <0.001 | ||
Country-level factors | ||||||||
Year of survey | ||||||||
2015-17 | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
2018-19 | 3.03 (2.41, 3.81) | <0.001 | - | 3.14 (2.49, 3.96) | <0.001 | |||
National income | ||||||||
Lower middle | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Upper middle | 1.09 (0.81, 1.44) | 0.540 | - | 0.34 (0.25, 0.46) | <0.001 | |||
High | 1.18 (0.91, 1.54) | 0.216 | - | 0.11 (0.08, 0.15) | <0.001 | |||
MPOWER score | 0.81 (0.71, 0.92) | 0.001 | - | 1.26 (1.22, 1.32) | <0.001 |
Variables | Model 1 |
Model 2 |
Model 3 |
|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | |||
Individual factors | ||||||||
Sex | ||||||||
Male | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Female | 0.31 (0.18, 0.53) | <0.001 | 0.85 (0.72, 1.00) | 0.049 | 0.41 (0.36, 0.46) | <0.001 | ||
Age (yr) | ||||||||
11-13 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
14-15 | 1.34 (0.73, 2.46) | 0.350 | 1.45 (1.11, 1.90) | 0.007 | 2.05 (1.70, 2.52) | <0.001 | ||
16-18 | 2.18 (1.17, 4.06) | 0.010 | 2.04 (1.56, 2.67) | <0.001 | 3.80 (3.10, 4.67) | <0.001 | ||
Parental smoking |
||||||||
None/don’t know | 1.00 (reference) | - | - | |||||
Either parent | 2.07 (1.27, 3.37) | <0.001 | - | - | ||||
Both parents | 6.13 (2.75, 13.65) | <0.001 | - | - | ||||
Pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco factors | ||||||||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages via mass media | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.77 (0.45, 1.33) | 0.350 | 1.27 (1.07, 1.50) | 0.006 | 1.20 (1.05, 1.36) | 0.006 | ||
Exposure to anti-tobacco messages at events | ||||||||
No/did not attend | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 2.44 (1.79, 3.34) | 0.001 | 0.96 (0.82, 1.13) | 0.610 | 1.37 (1.22, 1.55) | <0.001 | ||
Taught about the dangers of tobacco use | ||||||||
No/don’t know | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.61 (0.39, 0.95) | 0.030 | 1.14 (0.97, 1.34) | 0.120 | 1.17 (1.03, 1.33) | 0.013 | ||
Exposure to tobacco imagery in TV/movies | ||||||||
No/did not watch | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 0.71 (0.49, 1.02) | 0.060 | 1.03 (0.87, 1.22) | 0.730 | 1.09 (0.97, 1.25) | 0.160 | ||
Exposure to tobacco advertisements | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | ||||||
Yes | 2.20 (1.44, 3.35) | <0.001 | 1.27 (1.08, 1.49) | 0.004 | 1.47 (1.31, 1.67) | <0.001 | ||
Offered free tobacco products | ||||||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Yes | 5.74 (3.62, 9.12) | <0.001 | 1.94 (1.60, 2.35) | <0.001 | 2.84 (2.43, 3.23) | <0.001 | ||
Country-level factors | ||||||||
Year of survey | ||||||||
2015-17 | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
2018-19 | 2.17 (1.60, 2.94) | <0.001 | - | 5.07 (3.59, 7.15) | <0.001 | |||
National income | ||||||||
Lower middle | 1.00 (reference) | - | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Upper middle | 1.07 (0.76, 1.49) | 0.710 | - | 0.27 (0.18, 0.42) | <0.001 | |||
High | 1.36 (0.99, 1.87) | 0.050 | - | 0.11 (0.07, 0.17) | <0.001 | |||
MPOWER score | 0.79 (0.69, 0.92) | <0.001 | - | 1.31 (1.24, 1.39) | <0.001 |
Variables | ST use |
Dual use |
|||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Univariate |
Multivariate |
Univariate |
Multivariate |
||||||
Crude | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | Crude | p-value | Adjusted | p-value | ||
Sex | |||||||||
Mal | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Female | 0.69 (0.55, 0.86) | 0.001 | 0.60 (0.56, 0.65) | <0.001 | 0.31 (0.18, 0.53) | <0.001 | 0.37 (0.33, 0.41) | <0.001 | |
Age (yr) | |||||||||
11-13 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
14-15 | 0.93 (0.61, 1.44) | 0.754 | 1.28 (1.15, 1.41) | <0.001 | 1.34 (0.73, 2.46) | 0.350 | 2.19 (1.83, 2.61) | <0.001 | |
16-18 | 1.16 (0.71, 1.89) | 0.563 | 2.08 (1.87, 2.32) | <0.001 | 2.18 (1.17, 4.06) | 0.010 | 4.24 (3.56, 5.05) | <0.001 | |
Year of survey | |||||||||
2015-17 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
2018-19 | 3.03 (2.41, 3.81) | <0.001 | 1.25 (0.92, 1.70) | 0.158 | 2.17 (1.60, 2.94) | 0.001 | 1.21 (0.83, 1.77) | 0.324 | |
National income | |||||||||
Lower middle | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | |||||
Upper middle | 1.09 (0.81, 1.44) | 0.540 | 0.81 (0.63, 1.03) | 0.084 | 1.07 (0.76, 1.49) | 0.710 | 0.79 (0.58, 1.08) | 0.138 | |
High | 1.18 (0.91, 1.54) | 0.216 | 0.27 (0.18, 0.41) | <0.001 | 1.36 (0.99, 1.87) | 0.050 | 0.25 (0.15, 0.42) | <0.001 | |
MPOWER measure | |||||||||
Monitoring tobacco use | 0.38 (0.31, 0.46) | <0.001 | 1.10 (0.94, 1.29) | 0.237 | 0.31 (0.26, 0.38) | <0.001 | 1.03 (0.85, 1.25) | 0.733 | |
Smoke-free policies | 1.39 (1.10, 1.75) | 0.006 | 0.98 (0.84, 1.15 | 0.835 | 1.41 (1.08, 1.85) | 0.012 | 1.04 (0.86, 1.27) | 0.664 | |
Cessation programs | 0.56 (0.43, 0.72) | <0.001 | 1.38 (1.15, 1.66) | <0.001 | 0.52 (0.39, 0.69) | <0.001 | 1.47 (1.16, 1.86) | 0.001 | |
Warnings about the dangers of tobacco | 0.51 (0.45, 0.58) | <0.001 | 0.47 (0.42, 0.53) | <0.001 | 0.45 (0.40, 0.51) | <0.001 | 0.35 (0.30, 0.42) | <0.001 | |
Advertising bans | 3.14 (2.44, 4.03) | <0.001 | 1.06 (0.79, 1.41) | 0.693 | 1.48 (1.00, 2.20) | 0.052 | 1.31 (0.92, 1.86) | 0.133 | |
Taxation | 0.62 (0.48, 0.79) | <0.001 | 1.08 (0.86, 1.34 | 0.518 | 0.69 (0.52, 0.91) | 0.009 | 1.46 (1.11, 1.92) | 0.007 |
GYTS, Global Youth Tobacco Survey; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; HIC, high-income country; lMIC, lower middle-income country; uMIC, upper middle-income country; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The individual maximum scores are 4 for M and 5 for P, O, W, E, and R; The total maximum MPOWER score is 29. Taxation is not applicable since the sale of tobacco is banned in Brunei. MPOWER data were not available for Guam.
Values are presented as weighted prevalence (95% confidence interval). ST, smokeless tobacco; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic.
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval). ST, smokeless tobacco; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Data on parental smoking were unavailable for 5 countries (Brunei, Lao PDR, the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Philippines); MPOWER scores were unavailable for Guam.
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval). WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region; Lao PDR, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Data on parental smoking were unavailable for 5 countries (Brunei, Lao PDR, the Marshall Islands, Palau, and the Philippines); MPOWER scores were unavailable for Guam. Parental smoking status was included in a separate multilevel model.
Values are presented as odds ratio (95% confidence interval). ST, smokeless tobacco; WHO, World Health Organization; WPR, Western Pacific Region. Guam was not included in the analyses since MPOWER scores were unavailable for Guam.