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1International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
2Department of Development Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
3Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
4Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India
©2019, Korean Society of Epidemiology
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare for this study.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: YS, MD, PS. Data curation: MD. Formal analysis: MD, LP, YS. Funding acquisition: None. Methodology: MD, YS, PS. Visualization: MD, YS, LP. Writing – original draft: MD, YS, PS, LP. Writing – review & editing: MD, YS, PS, LP.
Characteristics1 |
Men, % |
Women, % |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Total (n) | Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | |
Age (yr)*** | ||||||
15-19 | 44.9 | 4.8 | 18,493 | 42.0 | 4.3 | 117,924 |
20-34 | 16.6 | 17.7 | 45,927 | 22.8 | 17.9 | 294,396 |
35-49 | 12.3 | 27.6 | 35,990 | 14.0 | 32.2 | 233,942 |
Region*** | ||||||
Northern | 16.5 | 19.5 | 22,161 | 19.4 | 22.2 | 129,946 |
Central | 26.4 | 11.9 | 25,446 | 26.4 | 15.4 | 170,828 |
Eastern | 22.2 | 13.8 | 15,433 | 26.7 | 15.4 | 116,030 |
Western | 21.3 | 22.3 | 10,901 | 24.7 | 23.7 | 52,276 |
Northeastern | 18.2 | 14.0 | 12,922 | 22.0 | 14.7 | 91,146 |
Southern | 14.2 | 27.5 | 13,547 | 17.0 | 29.7 | 86,036 |
Place of residence*** | ||||||
Rural | 23.0 | 14.3 | 69,022 | 26.8 | 15.1 | 456,728 |
Urban | 15.5 | 26.6 | 31,388 | 15.5 | 31.4 | 189,534 |
Caste*** | ||||||
SC | 22.9 | 15.0 | 17,963 | 25.3 | 17.3 | 114,935 |
ST | 25.1 | 9.8 | 17,887 | 31.8 | 10.1 | 116,898 |
OBC | 20.3 | 19.6 | 39,059 | 23.0 | 20.9 | 253,061 |
Other | 16.6 | 24.7 | 19,919 | 17.8 | 27.4 | 131,157 |
Religion*** | ||||||
Hindu | 20.7 | 18.4 | 74,920 | 23.6 | 19.9 | 480,743 |
Muslim | 19.3 | 19.9 | 13,886 | 21.6 | 23.7 | 86,135 |
Other | 13.9 | 24.5 | 11,604 | 16.4 | 26.5 | 79,384 |
Currently employed*** | ||||||
No | 32.8 | 11.1 | 25,772 | 22.7 | 22.2 | 85,597 |
Yes | 16.1 | 21.5 | 74,638 | 22.7 | 20.6 | 27,239 |
Marital status*** | ||||||
Never married | 30.7 | 10.2 | 38,688 | 37.4 | 6.6 | 167,696 |
Married | 13.6 | 24.5 | 60,458 | 18.4 | 25.2 | 450,995 |
Widowed | 24.2 | 13.5 | 577 | 18.1 | 26.5 | 20,000 |
Divorced/separated | 22.3 | 15.4 | 687 | 20.2 | 22.7 | 7,571 |
Education level*** | ||||||
Not educated | 22.6 | 12.0 | 12,251 | 24.7 | 16.9 | 183,128 |
Up to primary | 21.7 | 16.4 | 12,335 | 22.0 | 21.8 | 81,509 |
Up to secondary | 22.3 | 18.0 | 59,890 | 24.0 | 21.4 | 308,908 |
More than secondary | 10.4 | 28.5 | 15,934 | 16.0 | 25.9 | 72,717 |
Wealth index*** | ||||||
Poorest | 31.9 | 4.8 | 16,639 | 36.0 | 5.9 | 121,389 |
Poorer | 26.6 | 9.8 | 21,039 | 29.6 | 11.4 | 137,673 |
Middle | 20.5 | 16.6 | 21,970 | 23.1 | 18.8 | 136,665 |
Richer | 16.2 | 24.4 | 20,798 | 17.1 | 28.2 | 129,062 |
Richest | 10.6 | 32.7 | 19,964 | 11.6 | 36.2 | 121,473 |
Tobacco use*** | ||||||
No tobacco | 20.9 | 21.0 | 51,663 | 22.5 | 21.2 | 577,413 |
Only smoking tobacco | 16.6 | 19.2 | 15,473 | 31.9 | 12.2 | 5,462 |
Only smokeless tobacco | 20.8 | 15.7 | 22,335 | 28.4 | 15.0 | 60,988 |
Both smoking and smokeless tobacco | 20.1 | 13.2 | 10,939 | 26.1 | 13.0 | 2,399 |
Food consumption1 |
Men, % |
Women, % |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | |
Milk/curd*** | ||||||
Never | 26.3 | 12.8 | 6,045 | 27.7 | 17.8 | 55,707 |
Occasionally | 22.6 | 16.0 | 51,468 | 25.9 | 17.2 | 332,412 |
Daily | 17.0 | 22.7 | 42,897 | 19.0 | 25.0 | 258,143 |
Pulses*** | ||||||
Never | 21.7 | 14.6 | 456 | 28.9 | 19.9 | 3,586 |
Occasionally | 21.2 | 17.9 | 55,127 | 23.7 | 19.9 | 367,030 |
Daily | 19.0 | 20.1 | 44,827 | 21.9 | 21.8 | 275,646 |
Vegetables*** | ||||||
Never | 25.6 | 12.9 | 418 | 30.6 | 16.8 | 2,117 |
Occasionally | 21.5 | 18.0 | 52,730 | 23.9 | 20.0 | 326,903 |
Daily | 18.6 | 20.1 | 47,262 | 21.8 | 21.7 | 317,242 |
Fruits*** | ||||||
Never | 26.9 | 9.9 | 2015 | 30.1 | 14.0 | 15,451 |
Occasionally | 20.8 | 18.0 | 88,024 | 23.9 | 19.4 | 563,351 |
Daily | 14.2 | 28.4 | 10,371 | 14.5 | 31.8 | 67,460 |
Eggs*** | ||||||
Never | 21.4 | 18.7 | 20,378 | 23.2 | 20.8 | 19,825 |
Occasionally | 20.1 | 18.6 | 75,671 | 23.1 | 20.3 | 429,937 |
Daily | 16.5 | 24.3 | 4,361 | 17.7 | 27.7 | 20,500 |
Fish*** | ||||||
Never | 21.2 | 18.3 | 28,481 | 23.3 | 20.5 | 233,755 |
Occasionally | 20.2 | 18.9 | 67,796 | 23.5 | 20.3 | 385,262 |
Daily | 13.6 | 23.4 | 433 | 14.6 | 27.6 | 27,245 |
Chicken*** | ||||||
Never | 21.2 | 18.3 | 23 521 | 23.1 | 20.6 | 211,694 |
Occasionally | 19.9 | 19.1 | 75 153 | 23.0 | 20.7 | 426,757 |
Daily | 18.8 | 21.0 | 1736 | 17.7 | 28.0 | 7,811 |
Fried food*** | ||||||
Never | 19.5 | 20.2 | 7,659 | 22.1 | 24.1 | 29,181 |
Occasionally | 20.3 | 18.9 | 81,140 | 23.1 | 20.5 | 540,818 |
Daily | 19.8 | 18.1 | 11,611 | 21.7 | 21.0 | 76,263 |
Aerated drinks*** | ||||||
Never | 21.0 | 16.2 | 12,549 | 25.9 | 17.8 | 106,120 |
Occasionally | 20.3 | 19.0 | 81,401 | 22.5 | 21.3 | 509,147 |
Daily | 17.2 | 22.8 | 6,460 | 20.3 | 22.3 | 30,995 |
Characteristics |
Men |
Women |
||
---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Underweight | Overweight/obesity | |
Age (yr) | ||||
15-19 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
20-34 | 0.40 (0.38, 0.42)*** | 2.14 (1.95, 2.34)*** | 0.68 (0.65, 0.72)*** | 2.30 (2.10, 2.53)*** |
35-49 | 0.34 (0.32, 0.37)*** | 3.15 (2.85, 3.48)*** | 0.44 (0.41, 0.47)*** | 4.52 (4.11, 4.98)*** |
Region | ||||
Northern | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Central | 1.32 (1.25, 1.40)*** | 0.89 (0.83, 0.94)*** | 1.08 (1.02, 1.13)*** | 0.99 (0.93, 1.04) |
Eastern | 1.04 (0.98, 1.11) | 1.17 (1.09, 1.26)*** | 1.15 (1.09, 1.22)*** | 1.06 (0.98, 1.13) |
Western | 1.58 (1.48, 1.70)*** | 1.22 (1.14, 1.31)*** | 1.62 (1.52, 1.72)*** | 1.14 (1.07, 1.22)*** |
Northeastern | 0.65 (0.60, 0.71)*** | 1.29 (1.19, 1.40)*** | 0.60 (0.55, 0.65)*** | 1.06 (0.98, 1.15) |
Southern | 0.98 (0.91, 1.05) | 1.57 (1.47, 1.68)*** | 1.07 (1.00, 1.14)** | 1.44 (1.36, 1.54)*** |
Place of residence | ||||
Rural | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Urban | 1.01 (0.96, 1.05) | 1.18 (1.13, 1.23)*** | 0.89 (0.85, 0.93)*** | 1.28 (1.23, 1.33)*** |
Caste | ||||
SC | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
ST | 0.79 (0.75, 0.84)*** | 0.83 (0.77, 0.90)*** | 0.974 (0.92, 1.03) | 0.76 (0.71, 0.81)*** |
OBC | 0.97 (0.92, 1.01) | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13)** | 0.967 (0.93, 1.01) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.07) |
Other | 0.87 (0.82, 0.92)*** | 1.22 (1.15, 1.30)*** | 0.88 (0.83, 0.93)*** | 1.13 (1.07, 1.20)*** |
Religion | ||||
Hindu | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Muslim | 0.93 (0.88, 0.99)** | 0.99 (0.93, 1.06) | 0.91 (0.86, 0.96)*** | 1.29 (1.22, 1.37)*** |
Other | 0.69 (0.63, 0.74)*** | 1.15 (1.07, 1.23)*** | 0.60 (0.56, 0.64)*** | 1.09 (1.02,1.16)*** |
Currently employed | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Yes | 0.72 (0.69, 0.75)*** | 1.00 (0.94, 1.06) | 0.96 (0.93, 1.00)** | 0.93 (0.89, 0.97)*** |
Marital status | ||||
Never married | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Married | 0.76 (0.72, 0.80)*** | 1.91 (1.80, 2.02)*** | 0.64 (0.61, 0.67)*** | 2.19 (2.05, 2.34)*** |
Widowed | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) | 1.34 (1.02, 1.78)** | 0.69 (0.62, 0.77)*** | 2.00 (1.79, 2.23)*** |
Divorced/separated | 1.06 (0.86, 1.31) | 1.31 (1.03, 1.66)** | 0.83 (0.72, 0.96)** | 1.90 (1.62, 2.23)*** |
Education level | ||||
Not educated | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Up to primary | 1.03 (0.97, 1.11) | 1.20 (1.10, 1.30)*** | 0.89 (0.84, 0.94)*** | 1.15 (1.09, 1.22)*** |
Up to secondary | 0.87 (0.83, 0.93)*** | 1.23 (1.15, 1.32)*** | 0.86 (0.82, 0.90)*** | 1.19 (1.13, 1.25)*** |
More than secondary | 0.59 (0.54, 0.64)*** | 1.38 (1.27, 1.50)*** | 0.71 (0.66, 0.76)*** | 1.04 (0.97, 1.12) |
Wealth index | ||||
Poorest | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Poorer | 0.85 (0.80, 0.89)*** | 1.61 (1.47, 1.76)*** | 0.84 (0.81, 0.89)*** | 1.75 (1.62, 1.90)*** |
Middle | 0.68 (0.65, 0.72)*** | 2.49 (2.27, 2.72)*** | 0.73 (0.69, 0.76)*** | 2.76 (2.55, 2.99)*** |
Richer | 0.59 (0.56, 0.64)*** | 3.69 (3.37, 4.04)*** | 0.60 (0.57, 0.64)*** | 4.33 (3.99, 4.71)*** |
Richest | 0.43 (0.40, 0.47)*** | 5.10 (4.63, 5.62)*** | 0.47 (0.44, 0.51)*** | 5.63 (5.15, 6.15)*** |
Tobacco | ||||
No tobacco | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Only smoking tobacco | 1.09 (1.03, 1.15)*** | 0.78 (0.74, 0.83)*** | 1.49 (1.25, 1.77)*** | 1.02 (0.83, 1.25) |
Only smokeless tobacco | 1.05 (1.00, 1.10)** | 0.85 (0.81, 0.89)*** | 1.37 (1.30, 1.45)*** | 0.88 (0.83, 0.95)*** |
Both smoking and smokeless tobacco | 1.04 (0.98, 1.11) | 0.73 (0.68, 0.78)*** | 1.06 (0.77, 1.45) | 0.80 (0.61, 1.05) |
Values are presented as relative risk (95% confidence interval).
NFHS, National Family Health Survey; SC, Scheduled Caste; ST, Scheduled Tribe; OBC, Other Backward Class.
1 The results were adjusted for age, marital status, caste, religion, place of residence, schooling, wealth quintile, employment status, and tobacco use.
** p<0.01,
*** p<0.001.
Food consumption |
Men |
Women |
||
---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Underweight | Overweight/obesity | |
Milk/curd | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.82 (0.76, 0.88)*** | 0.94 (0.86, 1.03) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.08) | 0.97 (0.91, 1.04) |
Daily | 0.75 (0.69, 0.81)*** | 0.99 (0.90, 1.08) | 0.92 (0.86, 0.98)*** | 0.94 (0.88, 1.01)* |
Pulses | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.03 (0.80, 1.34) | 1.17 (0.85, 1.61) | 1.04 (0.83, 1.29) | 0.72 (0.57, 0.92)*** |
Daily | 1.05 (0.81, 1.36) | 1.24 (0.90, 1.71) | 1.02 (0.82, 1.27) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.94)** |
Vegetables | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.90 (0.71, 1.14) | 1.08 (0.78, 1.51) | 0.76 (0.59, 0.98)** | 0.94 (0.68, 1.30) |
Daily | 0.85 (0.67, 1.08) | 1.14 (0.82, 1.59) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.94)** | 1.05 (0.76, 1.45) |
Fruits | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.02 (0.91, 1.14) | 1.10 (0.93, 1.29) | 0.91 (0.82, 1.00)* | 1.01 (0.88, 1.16) |
Daily | 1.01 (0.89, 1.15) | 1.25 (1.05, 1.49)** | 0.82 (0.73, 0.92)*** | 1.13 (0.98, 1.31) |
Eggs | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.92 (0.86, 0.98)** | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01)* | 0.98 (0.92, 1.04) | 0.89 (0.83, 0.96)*** |
Daily | 1.02 (0.91, 1.15) | 1.02 (0.91, 1.15) | 1.16 (1.03, 1.30)** | 1.00 (0.90, 1.12) |
Fish | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.02 (0.96, 1.09) | 1.10 (1.02, 1.19)** | 0.98 (0.92, 1.04) | 1.07 (0.99, 1.15)* |
Daily | 0.84 (0.74, 0.96)*** | 1.04 (0.92, 1.17) | 0.78 (0.70, 0.87)*** | 1.08 (0.98, 1.20) |
Chicken | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.95 (0.88, 1.03) | 1.07 (0.98, 1.17) | 0.99 (0.92, 1.07) | 1.06 (0.98, 1.16) |
Daily | 1.09 (0.91, 1.30) | 1.09 (0.92, 1.29) | 0.99 (0.83, 1.20) | 1.07 (0.90, 1.27) |
Fried food | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.00 (0.93, 1.07) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) | 1.06 (0.98, 1.15) | 0.86 (0.79, 0.94)*** |
Daily | 1.01 (0.92, 1.10) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.14) | 0.89 (0.81, 0.98)** |
Aerated drinks | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.98 (0.93, 1.04) | 1.15 (1.08, 1.22)*** | 0.90 (0.86, 0.94)*** | 1.11 (1.06, 1.17)*** |
Daily | 0.89 (0.81, 0.98)** | 1.18 (1.08, 1.30)*** | 0.91 (0.83, 1.00)** | 1.07 (0.98, 1.18) |
Characteristics |
Men, % |
Women, % |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Total (n) | Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | |
Age (yr) |
||||||
15-19 | 44.9 | 4.8 | 18,493 | 42.0 | 4.3 | 117,924 |
20-34 | 16.6 | 17.7 | 45,927 | 22.8 | 17.9 | 294,396 |
35-49 | 12.3 | 27.6 | 35,990 | 14.0 | 32.2 | 233,942 |
Region |
||||||
Northern | 16.5 | 19.5 | 22,161 | 19.4 | 22.2 | 129,946 |
Central | 26.4 | 11.9 | 25,446 | 26.4 | 15.4 | 170,828 |
Eastern | 22.2 | 13.8 | 15,433 | 26.7 | 15.4 | 116,030 |
Western | 21.3 | 22.3 | 10,901 | 24.7 | 23.7 | 52,276 |
Northeastern | 18.2 | 14.0 | 12,922 | 22.0 | 14.7 | 91,146 |
Southern | 14.2 | 27.5 | 13,547 | 17.0 | 29.7 | 86,036 |
Place of residence |
||||||
Rural | 23.0 | 14.3 | 69,022 | 26.8 | 15.1 | 456,728 |
Urban | 15.5 | 26.6 | 31,388 | 15.5 | 31.4 | 189,534 |
Caste |
||||||
SC | 22.9 | 15.0 | 17,963 | 25.3 | 17.3 | 114,935 |
ST | 25.1 | 9.8 | 17,887 | 31.8 | 10.1 | 116,898 |
OBC | 20.3 | 19.6 | 39,059 | 23.0 | 20.9 | 253,061 |
Other | 16.6 | 24.7 | 19,919 | 17.8 | 27.4 | 131,157 |
Religion |
||||||
Hindu | 20.7 | 18.4 | 74,920 | 23.6 | 19.9 | 480,743 |
Muslim | 19.3 | 19.9 | 13,886 | 21.6 | 23.7 | 86,135 |
Other | 13.9 | 24.5 | 11,604 | 16.4 | 26.5 | 79,384 |
Currently employed |
||||||
No | 32.8 | 11.1 | 25,772 | 22.7 | 22.2 | 85,597 |
Yes | 16.1 | 21.5 | 74,638 | 22.7 | 20.6 | 27,239 |
Marital status |
||||||
Never married | 30.7 | 10.2 | 38,688 | 37.4 | 6.6 | 167,696 |
Married | 13.6 | 24.5 | 60,458 | 18.4 | 25.2 | 450,995 |
Widowed | 24.2 | 13.5 | 577 | 18.1 | 26.5 | 20,000 |
Divorced/separated | 22.3 | 15.4 | 687 | 20.2 | 22.7 | 7,571 |
Education level |
||||||
Not educated | 22.6 | 12.0 | 12,251 | 24.7 | 16.9 | 183,128 |
Up to primary | 21.7 | 16.4 | 12,335 | 22.0 | 21.8 | 81,509 |
Up to secondary | 22.3 | 18.0 | 59,890 | 24.0 | 21.4 | 308,908 |
More than secondary | 10.4 | 28.5 | 15,934 | 16.0 | 25.9 | 72,717 |
Wealth index |
||||||
Poorest | 31.9 | 4.8 | 16,639 | 36.0 | 5.9 | 121,389 |
Poorer | 26.6 | 9.8 | 21,039 | 29.6 | 11.4 | 137,673 |
Middle | 20.5 | 16.6 | 21,970 | 23.1 | 18.8 | 136,665 |
Richer | 16.2 | 24.4 | 20,798 | 17.1 | 28.2 | 129,062 |
Richest | 10.6 | 32.7 | 19,964 | 11.6 | 36.2 | 121,473 |
Tobacco use |
||||||
No tobacco | 20.9 | 21.0 | 51,663 | 22.5 | 21.2 | 577,413 |
Only smoking tobacco | 16.6 | 19.2 | 15,473 | 31.9 | 12.2 | 5,462 |
Only smokeless tobacco | 20.8 | 15.7 | 22,335 | 28.4 | 15.0 | 60,988 |
Both smoking and smokeless tobacco | 20.1 | 13.2 | 10,939 | 26.1 | 13.0 | 2,399 |
Food consumption |
Men, % |
Women, % |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | Underweight | Overweight/ obesity | Total (n) | |
Milk/curd |
||||||
Never | 26.3 | 12.8 | 6,045 | 27.7 | 17.8 | 55,707 |
Occasionally | 22.6 | 16.0 | 51,468 | 25.9 | 17.2 | 332,412 |
Daily | 17.0 | 22.7 | 42,897 | 19.0 | 25.0 | 258,143 |
Pulses |
||||||
Never | 21.7 | 14.6 | 456 | 28.9 | 19.9 | 3,586 |
Occasionally | 21.2 | 17.9 | 55,127 | 23.7 | 19.9 | 367,030 |
Daily | 19.0 | 20.1 | 44,827 | 21.9 | 21.8 | 275,646 |
Vegetables |
||||||
Never | 25.6 | 12.9 | 418 | 30.6 | 16.8 | 2,117 |
Occasionally | 21.5 | 18.0 | 52,730 | 23.9 | 20.0 | 326,903 |
Daily | 18.6 | 20.1 | 47,262 | 21.8 | 21.7 | 317,242 |
Fruits |
||||||
Never | 26.9 | 9.9 | 2015 | 30.1 | 14.0 | 15,451 |
Occasionally | 20.8 | 18.0 | 88,024 | 23.9 | 19.4 | 563,351 |
Daily | 14.2 | 28.4 | 10,371 | 14.5 | 31.8 | 67,460 |
Eggs |
||||||
Never | 21.4 | 18.7 | 20,378 | 23.2 | 20.8 | 19,825 |
Occasionally | 20.1 | 18.6 | 75,671 | 23.1 | 20.3 | 429,937 |
Daily | 16.5 | 24.3 | 4,361 | 17.7 | 27.7 | 20,500 |
Fish |
||||||
Never | 21.2 | 18.3 | 28,481 | 23.3 | 20.5 | 233,755 |
Occasionally | 20.2 | 18.9 | 67,796 | 23.5 | 20.3 | 385,262 |
Daily | 13.6 | 23.4 | 433 | 14.6 | 27.6 | 27,245 |
Chicken |
||||||
Never | 21.2 | 18.3 | 23 521 | 23.1 | 20.6 | 211,694 |
Occasionally | 19.9 | 19.1 | 75 153 | 23.0 | 20.7 | 426,757 |
Daily | 18.8 | 21.0 | 1736 | 17.7 | 28.0 | 7,811 |
Fried food |
||||||
Never | 19.5 | 20.2 | 7,659 | 22.1 | 24.1 | 29,181 |
Occasionally | 20.3 | 18.9 | 81,140 | 23.1 | 20.5 | 540,818 |
Daily | 19.8 | 18.1 | 11,611 | 21.7 | 21.0 | 76,263 |
Aerated drinks |
||||||
Never | 21.0 | 16.2 | 12,549 | 25.9 | 17.8 | 106,120 |
Occasionally | 20.3 | 19.0 | 81,401 | 22.5 | 21.3 | 509,147 |
Daily | 17.2 | 22.8 | 6,460 | 20.3 | 22.3 | 30,995 |
Characteristics | Men |
Women |
||
---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Underweight | Overweight/obesity | |
Age (yr) | ||||
15-19 | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
20-34 | 0.40 (0.38, 0.42) |
2.14 (1.95, 2.34) |
0.68 (0.65, 0.72) |
2.30 (2.10, 2.53) |
35-49 | 0.34 (0.32, 0.37) |
3.15 (2.85, 3.48) |
0.44 (0.41, 0.47) |
4.52 (4.11, 4.98) |
Region | ||||
Northern | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Central | 1.32 (1.25, 1.40) |
0.89 (0.83, 0.94) |
1.08 (1.02, 1.13) |
0.99 (0.93, 1.04) |
Eastern | 1.04 (0.98, 1.11) | 1.17 (1.09, 1.26) |
1.15 (1.09, 1.22) |
1.06 (0.98, 1.13) |
Western | 1.58 (1.48, 1.70) |
1.22 (1.14, 1.31) |
1.62 (1.52, 1.72) |
1.14 (1.07, 1.22) |
Northeastern | 0.65 (0.60, 0.71) |
1.29 (1.19, 1.40) |
0.60 (0.55, 0.65) |
1.06 (0.98, 1.15) |
Southern | 0.98 (0.91, 1.05) | 1.57 (1.47, 1.68) |
1.07 (1.00, 1.14) |
1.44 (1.36, 1.54) |
Place of residence | ||||
Rural | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Urban | 1.01 (0.96, 1.05) | 1.18 (1.13, 1.23) |
0.89 (0.85, 0.93) |
1.28 (1.23, 1.33) |
Caste | ||||
SC | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
ST | 0.79 (0.75, 0.84) |
0.83 (0.77, 0.90) |
0.974 (0.92, 1.03) | 0.76 (0.71, 0.81) |
OBC | 0.97 (0.92, 1.01) | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13) |
0.967 (0.93, 1.01) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.07) |
Other | 0.87 (0.82, 0.92) |
1.22 (1.15, 1.30) |
0.88 (0.83, 0.93) |
1.13 (1.07, 1.20) |
Religion | ||||
Hindu | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Muslim | 0.93 (0.88, 0.99) |
0.99 (0.93, 1.06) | 0.91 (0.86, 0.96) |
1.29 (1.22, 1.37) |
Other | 0.69 (0.63, 0.74) |
1.15 (1.07, 1.23) |
0.60 (0.56, 0.64) |
1.09 (1.02,1.16) |
Currently employed | ||||
No | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Yes | 0.72 (0.69, 0.75) |
1.00 (0.94, 1.06) | 0.96 (0.93, 1.00) |
0.93 (0.89, 0.97) |
Marital status | ||||
Never married | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Married | 0.76 (0.72, 0.80) |
1.91 (1.80, 2.02) |
0.64 (0.61, 0.67) |
2.19 (2.05, 2.34) |
Widowed | 1.14 (0.92, 1.41) | 1.34 (1.02, 1.78) |
0.69 (0.62, 0.77) |
2.00 (1.79, 2.23) |
Divorced/separated | 1.06 (0.86, 1.31) | 1.31 (1.03, 1.66) |
0.83 (0.72, 0.96) |
1.90 (1.62, 2.23) |
Education level | ||||
Not educated | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Up to primary | 1.03 (0.97, 1.11) | 1.20 (1.10, 1.30) |
0.89 (0.84, 0.94) |
1.15 (1.09, 1.22) |
Up to secondary | 0.87 (0.83, 0.93) |
1.23 (1.15, 1.32) |
0.86 (0.82, 0.90) |
1.19 (1.13, 1.25) |
More than secondary | 0.59 (0.54, 0.64) |
1.38 (1.27, 1.50) |
0.71 (0.66, 0.76) |
1.04 (0.97, 1.12) |
Wealth index | ||||
Poorest | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Poorer | 0.85 (0.80, 0.89) |
1.61 (1.47, 1.76) |
0.84 (0.81, 0.89) |
1.75 (1.62, 1.90) |
Middle | 0.68 (0.65, 0.72) |
2.49 (2.27, 2.72) |
0.73 (0.69, 0.76) |
2.76 (2.55, 2.99) |
Richer | 0.59 (0.56, 0.64) |
3.69 (3.37, 4.04) |
0.60 (0.57, 0.64) |
4.33 (3.99, 4.71) |
Richest | 0.43 (0.40, 0.47) |
5.10 (4.63, 5.62) |
0.47 (0.44, 0.51) |
5.63 (5.15, 6.15) |
Tobacco | ||||
No tobacco | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Only smoking tobacco | 1.09 (1.03, 1.15) |
0.78 (0.74, 0.83) |
1.49 (1.25, 1.77) |
1.02 (0.83, 1.25) |
Only smokeless tobacco | 1.05 (1.00, 1.10) |
0.85 (0.81, 0.89) |
1.37 (1.30, 1.45) |
0.88 (0.83, 0.95) |
Both smoking and smokeless tobacco | 1.04 (0.98, 1.11) | 0.73 (0.68, 0.78) |
1.06 (0.77, 1.45) | 0.80 (0.61, 1.05) |
Food consumption | Men |
Women |
||
---|---|---|---|---|
Underweight | Overweight/obesity | Underweight | Overweight/obesity | |
Milk/curd | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.82 (0.76, 0.88) |
0.94 (0.86, 1.03) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.08) | 0.97 (0.91, 1.04) |
Daily | 0.75 (0.69, 0.81) |
0.99 (0.90, 1.08) | 0.92 (0.86, 0.98) |
0.94 (0.88, 1.01) |
Pulses | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.03 (0.80, 1.34) | 1.17 (0.85, 1.61) | 1.04 (0.83, 1.29) | 0.72 (0.57, 0.92) |
Daily | 1.05 (0.81, 1.36) | 1.24 (0.90, 1.71) | 1.02 (0.82, 1.27) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.94) |
Vegetables | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.90 (0.71, 1.14) | 1.08 (0.78, 1.51) | 0.76 (0.59, 0.98) |
0.94 (0.68, 1.30) |
Daily | 0.85 (0.67, 1.08) | 1.14 (0.82, 1.59) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.94) |
1.05 (0.76, 1.45) |
Fruits | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.02 (0.91, 1.14) | 1.10 (0.93, 1.29) | 0.91 (0.82, 1.00) |
1.01 (0.88, 1.16) |
Daily | 1.01 (0.89, 1.15) | 1.25 (1.05, 1.49) |
0.82 (0.73, 0.92) |
1.13 (0.98, 1.31) |
Eggs | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.92 (0.86, 0.98) |
0.93 (0.86, 1.01) |
0.98 (0.92, 1.04) | 0.89 (0.83, 0.96) |
Daily | 1.02 (0.91, 1.15) | 1.02 (0.91, 1.15) | 1.16 (1.03, 1.30) |
1.00 (0.90, 1.12) |
Fish | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.02 (0.96, 1.09) | 1.10 (1.02, 1.19) |
0.98 (0.92, 1.04) | 1.07 (0.99, 1.15) |
Daily | 0.84 (0.74, 0.96) |
1.04 (0.92, 1.17) | 0.78 (0.70, 0.87) |
1.08 (0.98, 1.20) |
Chicken | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.95 (0.88, 1.03) | 1.07 (0.98, 1.17) | 0.99 (0.92, 1.07) | 1.06 (0.98, 1.16) |
Daily | 1.09 (0.91, 1.30) | 1.09 (0.92, 1.29) | 0.99 (0.83, 1.20) | 1.07 (0.90, 1.27) |
Fried food | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 1.00 (0.93, 1.07) | 0.96 (0.89, 1.03) | 1.06 (0.98, 1.15) | 0.86 (0.79, 0.94) |
Daily | 1.01 (0.92, 1.10) | 0.93 (0.85, 1.02) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.14) | 0.89 (0.81, 0.98) |
Aerated drinks | ||||
Never | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) | 1.00 (reference) |
Occasionally | 0.98 (0.93, 1.04) | 1.15 (1.08, 1.22) |
0.90 (0.86, 0.94) |
1.11 (1.06, 1.17) |
Daily | 0.89 (0.81, 0.98) |
1.18 (1.08, 1.30) |
0.91 (0.83, 1.00) |
1.07 (0.98, 1.18) |
NFHS, National Family Health Survey; SC, Scheduled Caste; ST, Scheduled Tribe; OBC, Other Backward Class. Significance level is obtained from chi-square test. p<0.001.
NFHS, National Family Health Survey. Significance level is obtained from chi-square test. p<0.001.
Values are presented as relative risk (95% confidence interval). NFHS, National Family Health Survey; SC, Scheduled Caste; ST, Scheduled Tribe; OBC, Other Backward Class. The results were adjusted for age, marital status, caste, religion, place of residence, schooling, wealth quintile, employment status, and tobacco use. p<0.01, p<0.001.
Values are presented as relative risk (95% confidence interval). NFHS, National Family Health Survey. The results were adjusted for age, marital status, caste, religion, place of residence, schooling, wealth quintile, employment status, and tobacco use. p<0.05, p<0.01, p<0.001.